EMPIRE
(1799-1815)
After a decade of uncertainty, the reign of Napoleon began. The emperor imposed
his own style upon the ébénistes. The lightness of the late 18th century was
lost as chairs became more solid in appearance. Chairs of this period were designed
to be seen from the front. Hence, all of the elements of decoration were located
on the arms, front legs, the apron and the front of the top rail. Classical
ornamentation incorporated elements used in decoration in ancient Rome, Greece
and Egypt such as amphorae, horns of plenty, fasces and wreaths. For the most
sophisticated pieces, the front feet were sculpted in the shape of lion feet,
sphinxes, griffins or caryatids. Decoration was of finely chiseled bronze that
was often gilded as well. Chairs and armchairs of more common usage differed
from those used for formal receptions and royalty. Their structure was simple
with a square or rectangular back supporting a triangular fronton (top rail).
The front legs were shaped like a quiver or as an opposed baluster and now continued
up to the arms without any "dé de raccordement" (corner blocks) in the apron.
The back legs were squarely sabered. The arms were straight and either round
or square, cumulating in a ball form. Other chairs designed during this period
often emulated the klismos or curule chair forms of Ancient Egypt and Greece.
The simplicity of forms and use of applied bronze decoration facilitated production
on an industrial scale. The most important furniture maker of the period, Jacob-Desmalter,
was the owner and director of a factory rather than an ébéniste making commissioned
pieces of unique design.
The trend of using
mahogany for chairs and armchairs started in the late 18th century and continued
prevalently up until 1807 by chairmakers such as Georges Jacob. During the war
with England in 1807, (due to an embargo) mahogany became unavailable. As a
result, French furniture makers turned to indigenous woods such as elm and walnut.
Chairs were made of beech or walnut if they were to be painted or gilded.
Innovations: Chaise gondole (1805), meridienne (1810)
RESTAURATION (1815-1848)
This period spans the reign of three kings: Louis XVIII (1815-1824), Charles
X (1824-1830), and Louis Philippe (1830-1848). At the beginning of the period,
under Louis XVIII, pieces were designed in the Empire style. But the symbols
used during the reign of Napoleon I were no longer utilized. The production
of furniture slowed down because of economic uncertainty and furniture was not
a focus of this monarchy. Rooms were being designed more for comfort than for
show and the old manner of keeping seat-furniture against the walls was abandonned.
Chair design reflected the change to intimate rooms with conversational seating
arrangements. The predominant shape was the "gondole." This shape was very comfortable
and the smaller size was easily transportable. During the reign of Charles X
the use of "bois clair" (blond woods) became popular and dark wood marquetry
was used for decoration instead of bronze. The Louis Philippe style followed
the same lines but with an emphasis on comfort. The shape of the chairs evolved,
becoming more rounded with softer lines. The arms were scrolled and the front
legs of the chair were in an s-shape, terminating in a scroll where they met
the corner blocks. At the end of the Restauration period, during the reign of
Louis Philippe, the color, grain, and quality of the wood became the focus of
design.
Another trend during
this period that cannot be ignored was the "style á la cathedrale" that emerged
around 1825. The chairs kept the shape consistent with the period but were adorned
with sculpted gothic architectural elements. Details such as crenelated top
rails and foliate spandrels were employed. The details were now commonly carved
by machine and had a much flatter appearance.
Innovations: fauteuil Voltaire (1815), fauteuil á la cathedrale (1830), confortable
(1837).
For more information
on chairs, we suggest the following resources used to write this piece: The
Paris Salons 1895-1914, Volume III: Furniture, copyright 1996 by Alastair Duncan.
The Penquin Dictionary of Decorative Arts, copyright 1989 by John Fleming and
Hugh Honour. Le Siège Français, copyright 1973 by Madeleine Jarry and Pierre
Devinoy. The Bulfinch Anatomy of Antique Furniture, copyright 1996 by III 1848-1871
NAPOLEON III (1848-1871)
This period was a time of luxury and comfort. It was also a period where many
styles of the 17th and 18th centuries were revived but heavily embellished.
Empress Eugenie preferred the style of Louis XVI, but there was a large production
of furnishings in the style of Louis XV, Louis XIII and Henri II as well. Upholstery
was in great use due to the invention of the coiled spring in 1828. Two original
styles of this period were the "style tapissier"—chairs made with button-holed
heavy upholstery and chairs of black-stained wood decorated with floral motifs.
Innovations: pouf (1850's), dos á dos (1850), boudeuse (1850).
ART NOUVEAU (1880-1919)
This style grew out of a reaction to the revival of 17th and 18th century styles
during the reign of Napoleon III. It was heavily influenced by japonaiserie
and the asymmetry of the Rococo style. Chairs and armchairs were heavily decorated
with floral and naturalistic motifs. This new style was not universally accepted
and was short-lived, never eclipsing the use of reproduction furniture. Furniture
was produced both traditionally by hand as well as by machine. Majorelle and
Gallé were major contributors to this style. They were a part of L'Ecole de
Nancy, a group of designers centered in Nancy, France that produced most of
the best examples of Art Nouveau furniture.
ART DECO (1918-1939)
By the end of World War I, this style (also called Moderne) began to fully evolve
while continuing some of the trends of the previous style. However, the use
of machine made furnishings was fully embraced. The style owes its name to an
exposition called L'Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs et Industriels
Modernes in Paris in 1925. Furniture makers used as inspiration, the periods
of Louis XVI and Directoire, with a modernist twist. Major contributors to the
style included Ruhlmann, Chareau, and Groult. Bentwood chairs also became quite
popular during this period with Thonet Frères founded in Paris in 1919.
Innovations: fauteuil club (1925)
SOME INFLUENTIAL CHAIR MAKERS
Louis Delanois (1731-1792) was a prolific chair-maker, turning out over
10,000 chairs and armchairs from his workshop in seventeen years of activity
in the styles of Louis XV and Louis XVI. He worked with some of the most prominent
marchand-merciers of his time as well as for the Comtesse du Barry and the Duc
de Chartres. He had great influence on the evolution of style, as one of the
producers that evolved the Louis XV style to be the precursor to the Louis XVI
style. He simplified chair design by eliminating floral sculpture and focusing
instead on molding. He became a maître in the year 1761.
Nicolas Heurtaut (1720-1771) started his career as a wood sculptor for Tilliard and Claude Sené among others. He became a maître in the year 1753 and produced for the nobility. His production shows the influence of his early training, with an emphasis on carving. For this reason, his pieces are highly desirable in today's auction arena. (A set of four armchairs sold at Christie's Monaco earlier this year for $160,000.) After 1760, his style became more simplified, although he did not totally abandon floral sculpture like some other ébénistes of the period such as Delanois.
Georges Jacob (1739-1814) was the most prolific of all 18th century French ébénistes, producing chairs for Louis XV, Louis XVI, the Directory and the Emperor Napoleon. His production is notable not only for quality but also for quantity and innovation. He worked for Marie-Antoinette and the brother of Louis XVI, as well as for the most influential clientele at an international level. He was influential in the creation of what we know as the Louis XVI style and introduced mahogany to France. In 1796, he sold his company to his two sons who worked under the name Jacob Frères until 1803. After the death of his eldest son, Georges Jacob came back to work with his second son under the name Jacob Desmalter et Cie. This new company was the largest supplier of chairs and armchairs to the court of the Emporer. He retired in 1813.
Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann (1879-1933) was a leading furniture designer of the Art Deco period. His chair designs were partially derived from the Empire style but he was also greatly influenced by Louis XVI style. His workshop employed the 18th century practice of marking pieces with an estampille. His over-sized comfortable club chairs are one of the icons of the Art Deco period.